Winter Olympic Games

For the most recent Winter Games, in Vancouver and Whistler, British Columbia, Canada, see 2010 Winter Olympics.
Winter Olympic Games
four pillars with flame at their tops surrounding a single fifth pillar in the middle, also with flame at the top. The background is sky with mountain.
The Olympic flame in Vancouver during the 2010 Winter Olympics
Games
1924 • 1928 • 1932 • 1936 • 1940 • 1944 • 1948
1952 • 1956 • 1960 • 1964 • 1968 • 1972 • 1976
1980 • 1984 • 1988 • 1992 • 1994 • 1998 • 2002
 2006 • 2010 • 2014 • 2018 • 2022
Sports (details)
Alpine skiing • Biathlon • Bobsled
Cross‑country skiing • Curling • Figure skating
Freestyle skiing • Ice hockey • Luge
Nordic combined • Short track speed skating
Skeleton • Ski jumping • Snowboarding
Speed skating

The Winter Olympic Games are a winter multi-sport event held every four years, starting in 1924. Consisting of winter sports, the Games have included alpine skiing, cross-country skiing, figure skating, ice hockey, Nordic combined, ski jumping, and speed skating. Other events have been added as the Games have progressed, and some of them, such as luge, short track speed skating, and freestyle skiing have earned a permanent spot on the Olympic programme. Others, such as speed skiing, bandy, and skijoring were demonstrated but were never officially incorporated as Olympic sports.

The first Winter Olympics was held in Chamonix, France, in 1924. Prior to this, figure skating and ice hockey had been events at the Summer Olympic Games. The Games were held every four years from 1924 until 1940 when they were interrupted by World War II. The Olympics resumed in 1948 and were celebrated every four years until 1992. At that point the Summer and Winter Games were placed on separate four-year cycles in alternating even-numbered years.

The Winter Games have undergone significant changes since their inception. The rise of television as a global medium for communication has enhanced the profile of the Games. It has also created an income stream via the sale of broadcast rights and advertising, which has become very lucrative for the International Olympic Committee (IOC). This has allowed outside interests, such as television companies and corporate sponsors, to influence the Games. The IOC has had to address several criticisms, internal scandals, and the use of performance enhancing drugs by Winter Olympians. There has been one political boycott of the Winter Olympics. Nations have also used the Winter Games for their own political ends, and to showcase the claimed superiority of their political systems.

The Winter Olympics have been hosted on three continents, but never in a country in the southern hemisphere. The United States has hosted the Games four times. France has been the host three times. Austria, Canada, Italy, Japan, Norway, and Switzerland have hosted the Games twice. In 2014 Sochi will be the first Russian city to host the Winter Olympics.

Contents

History

Early years

a man standing on ice in figure skates
Ulrich Salchow at the 1908 Summer Olympics

The first international multi-sport event for winter sports was the Nordic Games held in Sweden in 1901. Originally organised by General Viktor Gustaf Balck, the Nordic Games were held again in 1903 and 1905 and then every fourth year thereafter until 1926.[1] Balck was a charter member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and a close friend of Olympic Games founder Pierre de Coubertin. He attempted to have winter sports, specifically figure skating, added to the Olympic programme.[1] Balck was unsuccessful until the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, United Kingdom, which featured four figure skating events,[2] at which Ulrich Salchow (10-time world champion) and Madge Syers won the individual titles.[3]

Three years later, Italian count Eugenio Brunetta d'Usseaux proposed that the IOC stage a week with winter sports as part of the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm, Sweden. The organisers opposed this idea because they desired to protect the integrity of the Nordic Games, and they were concerned about a lack of facilities for winter sports.[4][5][6] The idea was resurrected for the 1916 Games, which was to be held in Berlin, Germany. A winter sports week with speed skating, figure skating, ice hockey and Nordic skiing was planned, but the 1916 Olympics was cancelled after the outbreak of World War I.[5]

The first Olympics after the war, the 1920 Games in Antwerp, Belgium, featured figure skating and ice hockey.[5] At the IOC Congress held the following year, it was decided that the host nation of the 1924 Summer Olympics, France, would also host a separate "International Winter Sports Week", under the patronage of the IOC. Chamonix was chosen to host this "week" (actually 11 days) of events. The Games proved to be a success when more than 250 athletes from 16 nations competed in 16 events.[7] Athletes from Finland and Norway won 28 medals, which was more than the rest of the participating nations combined.[8] In 1925 the IOC decided to create a separate Olympic Winter Games,[5] and the 1924 Games in Chamonix was retroactively designated as the first Winter Olympics.[5][7]

St. Moritz, Switzerland, was appointed by the IOC to host the second Olympic Winter Games in 1928.[9] Fluctuating weather conditions presented the hosts with challenges. The opening ceremony was held in a blizzard.[10] In contrast, warm weather conditions plagued the Olympics throughout the rest of the Games. Because of the weather, the 10,000 metre speed-skating event had to be abandoned and officially cancelled.[11] The weather was not the only note-worthy aspect of the 1928 Games; Sonja Henie of Norway made history when she won the figure skating competition at the age of 15. She became the youngest Olympic champion in history, a distinction she would hold for 74 years.[12]

The next Winter Olympics was the first to be hosted outside of Europe. Seventeen nations and 252 athletes participated.[13] This was less than in 1928, as the journey to Lake Placid, United States, was a long and expensive one for most competitors and there was little money for sports in the midst of the Great Depression. The athletes competed in fourteen events in four sports.[13] Warm weather was also a problem at the 1932 Olympics. Virtually no snow fell for two months before the Games. It was not until mid-January that there was enough snow to hold all the events.[14] Sonja Henie defended her Olympic title,[13] and Eddie Eagan, who had been an Olympic champion in boxing in 1920, won the gold in the men's bobsled event to become the first, and so far only, Olympian to have won gold medals in both the Summer and Winter Olympics.[13]

The German towns of Garmisch and Partenkirchen joined to organise the 1936 edition of the Winter Games, held on February 6–16.[15] In 1936, the Summer and Winter Olympics were held in the same country, Germany, for the last time. Alpine skiing made its Olympic debut, but skiing teachers were barred from entering because they were considered to be professionals.[16] Because of this decision, the Swiss and Austrian skiers refused to compete at the Games.[16]

World War II

The Second World War interrupted the celebration of the Winter Olympics. The 1940 Winter Olympics had originally been awarded to Sapporo, Japan, but the decision was rescinded in 1938 because of the Japanese invasion of China. St. Moritz, was chosen by the IOC to host the Games, but three months later the IOC withdrew its selection because of quarrels with the Swiss organising committee. The cities of Garmisch-Partenkirchen stepped in to host the Winter Games again, but both Summer and Winter Olympics were cancelled in November 1939 following Germany's invasion of Poland.[17] The 1944 Winter Olympics, scheduled to take place in Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy, were cancelled in the summer of 1941 because of the continuing World War.[18][19]

1948 to 1960

St. Moritz was selected to host the first post-war Games in 1948. Because of Switzerland's neutrality, the town had been untouched by World War II. Since most of the venues were already constructed for the 1928 Games, St. Moritz was a logical choice to become the first city to host a Winter Olympics twice.[20] Twenty-eight countries competed in Switzerland, but athletes from Germany and Japan were not invited.[21] The Games were marred by controversy and theft. Two hockey teams from the United States arrived. Both claimed to be the legitimate U.S. Olympic hockey representative. The Olympic flag presented at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp was stolen, as was its replacement. There was unprecedented parity at these Games, during which 10 countries won gold medals, more than any Games to that point.[22]

An open air arena with crowds in the stands and people on the playing field surrounding a rostrum
The opening ceremonies of the 1956 Winter Olympics in Cortina d'Ampezzo

The city of Oslo, Norway, was invited to host the 1952 Winter Olympics. The Olympic Flame was lit in the fireplace of the home of skiing pioneer Sondre Nordheim.[23] The torch relay was conducted by 94 participants entirely on skis.[23][24] Bandy, a popular sport in the Nordic countries, was featured as a demonstration sport, though only Norway, Sweden, and Finland fielded teams. Norwegian athletes won 17 medals and outpaced all nations in total medals won.[25] They were led by Hjalmar Andersen who won three gold medals in four events in the speed skating competition.[26] Chiharu Igaya won the first Winter Olympics medal for Japan and for the continent of Asia, when he placed second in the slalom.[27]

After not being able to host the Games in 1944 because of the war, Cortina d'Ampezzo was selected to organise the 1956 Winter Olympics. At the opening ceremonies the final torch bearer, Guido Caroli, entered the Olympic Stadium on ice skates. As he skated around the stadium rink, his skate caught on a cable and he fell, nearly extinguishing the flame. He was able to recover and lit the cauldron.[28] These were the first Winter Games to be televised, though no television rights would be sold until the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome.[29] The Cortina Games were used as an experiment in the feasibility of televising sporting events on such a large scale.[29] The Soviet Union made its debut at the Winter Olympics. The Soviet team had an immediate impact, winning more medals than any other nation.[30]

The IOC awarded the 1960 Olympics to Squaw Valley, United States. Since the village was underdeveloped, there was a rush to construct roads, hotels, restaurants, and bridges, as well as the ice arena, the speed-skating track, ski lifts, and the ski jump hill.[31][32] The opening and closing ceremonies were produced by Walt Disney.[33] The Squaw Valley Olympics had a number of notable firsts: it was the first Olympics to have a dedicated athletes' village. It was also the first to use a computer (courtesy of IBM) to tabulate results, and the first Olympics to incorporate female speed skating events.[33] The bobsled events were absent for the first and only time because the organising committee found it too expensive to build the bobsled run.[33]

1964 to 1980

An empty arena with the sheet of ice and the score board
The Herb Brooks Arena, site of the "Miracle on Ice", photo taken ca. 2007

The Austrian city of Innsbruck was the host in 1964. Although Innsbruck was a traditional winter sports resort, warm weather caused a lack of snow during the Games and the Austrian army was asked to transport snow and ice to the sport venues.[33] Soviet speed-skater Lidia Skoblikova made history by sweeping all four speed-skating events. Her career total of six gold medals set a record for the most gold medals won by a Winter Olympics athlete.[33] Luge was first contested in these Olympics, although the sport received bad publicity when a competitor was killed in a pre-Olympic training run.[34][35]

Held in the French town of Grenoble, the 1968 Winter Olympics was the first Olympic Games to be broadcast in colour.[36] There were 37 nations and 1,158 athletes competing in 35 events.[36] Frenchman Jean-Claude Killy became only the second person to sweep all the men's alpine skiing events.[36] The effects of television began to show at the Grenoble Games. The organising committee sold the television rights for $2 million, a significant increase over the price of the broadcast rights for the Innsbruck Games, which totaled $936,667.[37] Venues were spread over long distances requiring three athletes' villages at these Games. The organisers claimed this was required to accommodate technological advances. Critics disputed this, alleging that the layout was necessary to provide the best possible venues for television broadcasts at the expense of the athletes.[37]

The 1972 Winter Games, held in Sapporo, Japan, were the first to be hosted outside North America or Europe. The issue of professionalism became very contentious during the Sapporo Games. Three days before the Olympics, IOC president Avery Brundage threatened to bar a large number of alpine skiers from competing because they participated in a ski camp at Mammoth Mountain in the United States. Brundage reasoned that the skiers had financially benefited from their status as athletes and were therefore no longer amateurs.[38] Eventually, only Austrian Karl Schranz, who earned more than all the other skiers, was not allowed to compete.[39] Canada did not send teams to the 1972 or 1976 ice hockey tournaments in protest of their inability to use players from professional leagues.[40] Francisco Ochoa became the only Spaniard to ever win a Winter Olympic gold medal, when he triumphed in the slalom.[41]

Originally the 1976 Winter Games had been awarded to Denver, United States, but in 1972 Colorado voters passed a referendum declining to be hosts.[42] Innsbruck, which still had maintained the infrastructure from the 1964 Games, was chosen in 1973 to replace Denver.[43] Two Olympic flames were lit because it was the second time the Austrian town had hosted the Games.[43] The 1976 Games also featured the first combination bobsled and luge track in neighbouring Igls.[41] The Soviet Union won its fourth straight ice-hockey gold medal.[43]

In 1980 the Olympic Winter Games returned to Lake Placid, which had hosted the 1932 Games. The first, and thus far only, boycott of a Winter Olympics occurred during the 1980 Games when the Taiwan team refused to participate under an edict by the IOC to change their name and national anthem.[44] The IOC was attempting to accommodate China, who wished to compete using the same name and anthem that was previously used by Taiwan.[44] American speed-skater Eric Heiden set either an Olympic or world record in each of the five events he competed in.[45] Hanni Wenzel won both the slalom and giant slalom. Her country, Liechtenstein, became the smallest nation to produce an Olympic gold medallist.[13] In the "Miracle on Ice", the American hockey team beat the favoured Soviets and went on to win the gold medal.[46]

1984 to 1998

The cities of Sapporo, Japan, and Gothenburg, Sweden, were front-runners to host the 1984 Winter Olympics. It was therefore a surprise when Sarajevo, Yugoslavia, was chosen to host the Games.[47] The Games were well-organised and displayed no indication of the war that would soon engulf the country.[48] A total of 49 nations and 1,272 athletes participated in 39 events.[48] Host nation Yugoslavia won its first Olympic medal when alpine skier Jure Franko won a silver in the giant slalom.[48] Another sporting highlight was the free dance performance of British ice dancers Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean. Their performance to Ravel's Boléro earned the pair unanimous perfect scores in artistic impression, and the gold medal.[48]

Alberto Tomba in hat and ski clothes
Alberto Tomba, winner of five Olympic medals in Calgary, Albertville, and Lillehammer

In 1988, the Canadian city of Calgary hosted the first Winter Olympics to span 16 days.[49] New events were added in ski jumping and speed skating, while future Olympic sports curling, short track speed skating and freestyle skiing made their appearance as demonstration sports. For the first time, the speed skating events were held indoors, on the Olympic Oval. Dutch skater Yvonne van Gennip won three gold medals, and set two world records in speed skating, beating skaters from the favoured East German team in every race.[50] Her medal total was equalled by Finnish ski jumper Matti Nykänen, who won all three events in his sport.[49] Alberto Tomba, an Italian skier, made his Olympic debut by winning both the giant slalom and slalom.[49] East German Christa Rothenburger won the women's 1,000 metre speed skating event. Seven months later, she would earn a silver in track cycling at the Summer Games in Seoul.[49] She became the first and only athlete to win medals in both a Summer and Winter Olympics in the same year.[49]

The 1992 Games were the last to be held in the same year as the Summer Games.[51] They were hosted in the French Savoie region. The town of Albertville was the host city though only 18 events were held in the city. The rest of the events were spread out over the Savoie.[51] Political changes of the time were reflected in the Olympic teams appearing in France. This was the first Games to be held after the fall of Communism and the dismantling of the Berlin Wall.[52] Germany competed as a single nation for the first time since the 1964 Games, and former Yugoslavian republics Croatia and Slovenia made their debut as independent nations. Most of the former Soviet republics still competed as a single team known as the Unified Team, but the Baltic States made independent appearances for the first time since before World War II. At 16 years old, Finnish ski jumper Toni Nieminen made history by becoming the youngest male Winter Olympic champion.[53] New Zealand skier Annelise Coberger became the first Winter Olympic medallist from the southern hemisphere when she won a silver medal in the women's slalom.

In 1986, the IOC voted to separate the Summer and Winter Games and place them in alternating even-numbered years starting in 1994. These Games were the first Winter Olympics to be held without the Summer Games in the same year.[54] After the division of Czechoslovakia in 1993, the Czech Republic and Slovakia made their Olympic debut in Lillehammer, Norway.[55] The women's figure skating competition garnered significant media attention. American skater Nancy Kerrigan had been injured on January 6, 1994, in an assault planned by the ex-husband of opponent Tonya Harding.[56] Both skaters competed in the Games, but neither won the gold medal, which went to Oksana Baiul, who won Ukraine's first Olympic title.[57][58] Johann Olav Koss of Norway won three gold medals and swept the distance speed skating events.[59]

The 1998 Winter Olympics was the first Games to host more than 2,000 athletes.[60] The Games were held in the Japanese city of Nagano. The men's ice hockey tournament was open to professionals for the first time. Canada and the United States, with their many NHL players, were favoured to win the tournament.[60] However, neither won any hockey medals, as the Czech Republic prevailed.[60] Women's ice hockey made its debut and the United States won the gold medal.[61] Bjørn Dæhlie of Norway won three gold medals in Nordic skiing. He became the most decorated Winter Olympic athlete with eight gold medals and twelve medals overall.[60] Austrian Hermann Maier survived a crash during the downhill competition and returned to win gold in the super-g and the giant slalom[60] A wave of new world records were set in speed skating because of the introduction of the clap skate.[62]

2002 to present

Interwoven steel frame several stories high with the lit flame at the top
Olympic flame during the Opening Ceremony of the 2002 Games in Salt Lake City

The 19th Olympic Winter Games were held in Salt Lake City, United States.[63] German Georg Hackl won a silver in the singles luge, becoming the first athlete in Olympic history to medal in the same individual event in five consecutive Olympics.[63] Salt Lake City hosted 77 nations and 2,399 athletes. There were 78 events in 7 sports.[63] Canada achieved an unprecedented double by winning both the men's and women's ice hockey gold medals.[63] Canada also became embroiled with Russia in a controversy that involved the judging of the pairs figure skating competition. The Russian pair of Yelena Berezhnaya and Anton Sikharulidze competed against the Canadian pair of Jamie Salé and David Pelletier for the gold medal. The Canadians appeared to have skated well enough to win the competition, yet the Russians were awarded the gold. The judging broke along Cold War lines with the exception of the French judge, Marie-Reine Le Gougne, who awarded the gold to the Russians. An investigation revealed that she had been pressured to give the gold to the Russian pair regardless of how they skated; in return the Russian judge would look favourably on the French entrants in the ice dancing competition.[64] The IOC decided to award both pairs the gold medal in a second medal ceremony held later in the Games.[65] Australian Steven Bradbury became the first gold medallist from the southern hemisphere when he won the 1,000 metre short-track speed skating event.[66]

The Italian city of Turin hosted the 2006 Winter Olympics. It was the second time that Italy hosted the Winter Olympic Games. South Korean athletes won 10 medals, including 6 gold in the short-track speed skating events. Sun-Yu Jin won three gold medals while her teammate Hyun-Soo Ahn also won three gold medals and added a bronze.[67] In the women's Cross-Country team pursuit Canadian Sara Renner broke one of her poles. When he saw her dilemma, Norwegian coach Bjørnar Håkensmoen decided to lend her a pole. In so doing she was able to help her team win a silver medal in the event at the expense of the Norwegian team, who finished fourth.[67][68] Claudia Pechstein of Germany became the first speed skater to earn nine career medals.[67] In February of 2009, Pechstein tested positive for "blood manipulation", which she appealed. The Court of Arbitration for Sport upheld her suspension but a Swiss court ruled that she could compete for a spot on the 2010 German Olympic team.[69] She lost her final appeal to lift her suspension on January 26, 2010, which precluded her from competing in Vancouver even if she had made the German team.[70]

In 2003 the IOC awarded the 2010 Winter Olympics to Vancouver, thus allowing Canada to host its second Winter Olympics. With a population of more than 2.5 million people, Vancouver is the largest metropolitan area to ever host a Winter Olympic Games.[71] Over 80 countries and 5,000 athletes participated in 86 events.[72] The death of Georgian luger Nodar Kumaritashvili in a training run on the day of the opening ceremonies cast a pall over the Games. His death also forced officials at the Whistler Sliding Centre to change the track in order to make it safer.[73] Norwegian cross-country skier Marit Bjørgen won five medals in the six cross-country events on the women's programme. She finished the Olympics with three golds, a silver and a bronze.[74] The Vancouver Games were also notable for the poor performance of the Russian athletes. From their first Winter Olympics in 1956 until 2006, a Soviet or Russian delegation had never been outside the top five medal-winning nations. In 2010 they finished sixth in total medals and eleventh in gold medals. This caused great concern at the highest levels of the Russian government. President Dmitry Medvedev called for the resignation of top sports officials immediately after the Games.[75] The success of Asian countries stood in stark contrast to the under-performing Russian team. Vancouver marked a high point for medals won by Asian countries. In 1992 Asia accounted for fifteen medals, three of which were gold. In Vancouver the total number of medals won by athletes from Asia had increased to thirty-one, with eleven of them being gold. The rise of Asian nations in Winter Olympics sports is due in part to the growth of winter sports programmes and winter sports interest in nations such as South Korea, Japan, and China.[76][77]

Future

The decision for the location of the 2014 Winter Olympics was made on July 4, 2007. Sochi, Russia, was elected as the host city over the other two finalists: Salzburg, Austria, and Pyeongchang, South Korea. Sochi will be the first city with a subtropical climate to host the Winter Games.[78] The Olympic Village and Olympic Stadium will be located on the Black Sea coast. All of the mountain venues will be 50 kilometres (30 mi) away in the alpine region known as Krasnaya Polyana.[78] The host city for the 2018 Winter Olympics has yet to be determined. Pyeongchang, South Korea, Munich, Germany and Annecy, France, have all indicated an interest in hosting the Games. A final vote by the IOC on the location of the 2018 Games will be held in July 2011.[79] If Munich wins the bid, it will become the first city to ever host both a Summer and Winter Olympics.[79]

Controversy

a head shot of Juan Antonio Samaranch with dark glasses on
Juan Antonio Samaranch, former IOC president, was implicated in a bidding scandal for the 2002 Winter Olympics.

The process for awarding host city honours came under intense scrutiny after Salt Lake City had been awarded the right to host the 2002 Games.[80] Soon after the host city had been announced it was discovered that the organisers had engaged in an elaborate bribery scheme to curry favour with IOC officials.[80] Gifts and other financial considerations were given to those who would evaluate and vote on Salt Lake City's bid. These gifts included medical treatment for relatives, a college scholarship for one member's son, and a land deal in Utah. Even IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch received two rifles valued at $2,000. Samaranch defended the gift as inconsequential since as president he was a non-voting member.[81] The subsequent investigation uncovered inconsistencies in the bids for every Games (both summer and winter) since 1988.[82] For example, the gifts received by IOC members from the Japanese Organising Committee for Nagano's bid for the 1998 Winter Olympics were described by the investigation committee as "astronomical".[83] Although nothing strictly illegal had been done, the IOC feared that corporate sponsors would lose faith in the integrity of the process, and that the Olympic brand would be tarnished to such an extent that advertisers would begin to pull their support.[84] The results of the investigation were the expulsion of 10 IOC members and another 10 members were sanctioned, stricter rules for future bids, ceilings were put into place for how much IOC members could accept from bid cities, new term and age limits were established for IOC membership, and 15 former Olympic athletes were added to the committee.[85][86][87]

Host city legacy

According to the IOC, the host city is responsible for, "...establishing functions and services for all aspects of the Games, such as sports planning, venues, finance, technology,accommodation, catering, media services etc., as well as operations during the Games."[88] Due to the heavy cost involved with hosting an Olympic Games most host cities never realise a profit on their investment.[89] For example, the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan cost $12.5 billion.[90] By comparison, the Turino Games of 2006 cost $3.6 billion to host.[90] The organisers claimed that the cost of extending bullet train service from Tokyo to Nagano was responsible for the huge price tag.[90] The organising committee hoped that the exposure of the Olympic Games, and the expedited access to Nagano from Tokyo, would be a boon to the local economy for years afterward. Nagano's economy did experience a two-year post-Olympic spur, but the long term effects have not materialised as planned.[90] The possibility of heavy debt, coupled with sports venues and unused infrastructure that saddle the local community with upkeep costs and no practical post-Olympic value, is a heavy deterrent to prospective host cities.[91]

To mitigate these concerns the IOC has enacted several initiatives. First it has agreed to fund part of the host city's budget for staging the Games.[92] The IOC also limits the qualifying host countries to those that have the resources and infrastructure to successfully host an Olympic Games without negatively impacting the region or nation. This eliminates a large portion of the developing world.[93] Finally, cities bidding to host the Games are required to add a "legacy plan" to their proposal. This requires prospective host cities to plan with a view to the long-term economic and environmental impact the Olympics will have on the region. It also allows the IOC to consider this impact when awarding the Games.[94]

Doping

In 1967 the IOC began enacting drug testing protocols. They started randomly testing athletes at the 1968 Winter Olympics.[95] The first Winter Games athlete to test positive for a banned substance was Alois Schloder, a West German hockey player who had ephedrine in his system. He was disqualified from the rest of the tournament but his team was still allowed to compete.[96][97] During the 1970s, testing outside of competition was escalated because it was found to deter athletes from using performance-enhancing drugs.[98] The problem with testing during this time was a lack of standardisation of the test procedures, which undermined the credibility of the tests. It was not until the late 1980s that international sporting federations began to coordinate efforts to standardise the drug-testing protocols.[99] The IOC decided to take a leadership role in the fight against steroids when it established the independent World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in November 1999.[100][101]

The 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin became notable for a scandal involving the emerging trend of blood doping, which was the use of blood transfusions or synthetic hormones such as Erythropoietin (EPO) to improve oxygen flow in order to reduce fatigue.[102] The Italian police conducted a raid during the Games on the Austrian cross-country ski team's residence. They seized blood-doping specimens and equipment.[102][103] This event followed the pre-Olympics suspension of 12 cross-country skiers who tested positive for unusually high levels of hemoglobin, which is evidence of blood doping.[102]

Commercialisation

As president of the IOC from 1952 to 1972, Avery Brundage rejected all attempts to link the Olympics with commercial interests. He felt that the Olympic movement should be completely separate from financial influence.[104] The 1960 Winter Olympics marked the beginning of corporate sponsorship of the Games.[104] Despite his strenuous resistance, the commercialisation of the Games continued during the 1960s, and revenue generated by corporate sponsorship swelled the IOC's coffers.[105] By the Grenoble Games, Brundage had become so concerned about the direction of the Winter Olympic Games towards commercialisation that if it could not be corrected, then he felt the Winter Olympics should be abolished.[106] Brundage's resistance to this revenue stream meant the IOC was slow to seek a share of the financial windfall that was coming to host cities and was unable to control how sponsorship deals were being structured.[104] When Brundage retired, the IOC had $2 million in assets; eight years later IOC accounts had swelled to $45 million.[104] This was primarily due to a shift in ideology among IOC members toward expansion of the Games through corporate sponsorship and the sale of television rights.[104]

Brundage's concerns proved prophetic. The IOC has charged more for television broadcast rights at each successive Games.[107] At the 1998 Nagano Games, American broadcaster CBS paid $375 million, whereas the 2006 Turin Games cost NBC $613 million to broadcast.[108] The more television companies have paid to televise the Games, the greater their persuasive power with the IOC.[107][109] For example, the television lobby has influenced the Olympic programme by dictating when event finals are held so that they appear in prime time for television audiences. They have also pressured the IOC to include new events such as snowboarding that appeal to broad television audiences. This has been done to boost ratings, which were slowly declining until the 2010 Games.[110][111]

In 1986, the IOC decided to stagger the Summer and Winter Games. Instead of holding both in the same calendar year, the committee decided to alternate them every two years. Both Games would still be held on four-year cycles.[112] It was decided that 1992 would be the last year to have both a Winter and Summer Olympic Games.[54] There were two underlying reasons for this change. One was the television lobby's desire to maximize advertising revenue. They were having difficulty raising advertising revenue for two Games in the same year.[112] The second reason for the change was the IOC's desire to gain more control over the revenue generated by the Games. The committee determined that staggering the Games would make it more likely that corporations would sponsor individual Olympic Games, which would maximize revenue potential. The IOC also sought to directly negotiate sponsorship contracts so that they had more control over the Olympic "brand".[113] The first Winter Olympics to be hosted in this new format was the 1994 Games in Lillehammer.[51]

Politics

Cold War

The Winter Olympics have been an ideological front in the Cold War since the Soviet Union first participated at the 1956 Winter Games. It did not take long for the Cold War combatants to discover what a powerful propaganda tool the Olympic Games could be. Soviet and American politicians used the Olympics, and other international sporting events, as an opportunity to prove the perceived superiority of their respective political systems.[114] The successful Soviet athlete was feted and honoured. Irina Rodnina, three-time Olympic gold medallist in figure skating, was awarded the Order of Lenin after her victory at the 1976 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck.[115] With the award came monetary compensation from $4,000 to $8,000 depending on the prestige of the sport. A world record was worth an additional $1,500.[116] In 1978 the United States Congress responded to the propaganda pressure of the Soviet Union by passing legislation that reorganised the United States Olympic Committee. This sort of political intrusion in a sports federation was unprecedented in a democratic country.[117]

A postage stamp with a blue background and two figure skaters skating, the date 1968 is centered on the top of the stamp along with the Olympic rings. The word "Winterspiele" is written down the right side, the words "X Olympische" are written down the left side. The number 25 is in the lower left corner and the letters "DDR" are in the lower right corner
A postage stamp issued by East Germany in commemoration of their first Winter Olympics as an independent country

The Cold War also created tensions among countries allied to the two superpowers. The strained relationship between East and West Germany created a difficult political situation for the IOC. Because of its role in World War II, Germany was not allowed to compete at the 1948 Winter Olympics.[21] In 1950, the IOC recognised the West German Olympic Committee,[118] and a West German team represented Germany at the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo. The East Germans were invited to cooperate as a unified team in 1952 but they declined.[119] In 1955 the Soviet Union recognized East Germany as a sovereign state, thereby giving more credibility to East Germany's campaign to become an independent participant at the Olympics. The IOC agreed to provisionally accept the East German National Olympic Committee with the condition that East and West Germans compete as a unified team.[120] The situation became tenuous when the Berlin Wall was constructed in 1962. Many western countries, including France and the United States, refused visas to East German athletes competing in world championships in their countries.[121] The uneasy compromise of a unified team held until the 1968 Grenoble Games, when the IOC officially split the teams and threatened to reject the host-city bids of any country that refused entry visas to East German athletes.[122]

Boycott

The Winter Games have had only one national team boycott. The Republic of China, also known as Taiwan, decided to boycott the 1980 Winter Olympics held in Lake Placid. The reason for the boycott was that the IOC had agreed to China's request to compete in the Olympics for the first time since 1952. They were allowed to compete as the "People's Republic of China" and to use the Chinese flag and anthem. Until 1980, the island of Taiwan had been competing under the name, "Republic of China" and had been using the Chinese flag and anthem.[123] Initially the IOC attempted to have the countries compete together, but when this proved to be unacceptable, the IOC demanded that Taiwan cease to call itself the "Republic of China".[124][125] The IOC also renamed the island "Chinese Taipei" and demanded that it adopt a different flag and national anthem; stipulations that Taiwan would not agree to. Despite numerous appeals and court hearings, the IOC's decision stood. When the Taiwanese athletes arrived at the Olympic village with their Republic of China identification cards, they were not admitted. They subsequently left the Olympics in protest just before the opening ceremonies.[123] Taiwan returned to Olympic competition at the 1984 Winter Games in Sarajevo as Chinese Taipei. The country agreed to compete under a flag bearing the emblem of their National Olympic Committee and to play the anthem of their National Olympic Committee should one of their athletes win a gold medal. This compromise continues to this day.[126]

Sports

Chapter 1, article 6 of the 2007 edition of the Olympic Charter defines winter sports as "sports which are practised on snow or ice."[127] Through the years, the number of sports and events conducted at the Winter Olympic Games have increased. There have also been demonstration sports, which are contested during the Games but for which no medals are awarded. Since 1992 a number of new sports have been added to the Olympic programme. These sports include short track speed skating, snowboarding, freestyle and moguls skiing. The addition of these events has broadened the appeal of the Winter Olympics beyond Europe and North America. Whilst European powers such as Norway and Germany still dominate the traditional Winter Olympic sports, countries such as South Korea, Australia, and Canada are finding success in the new sports that have been introduced in the last two decades. The results are more parity in the national medal tables, more interest in the Winter Olympics, and higher global television ratings.[128]

Current sport disciplines

Sport Years # of
events		 Medal events contested in 2010[129]
Alpine skiing Since 1936 10 Men's and women's downhill, super giant slalom, giant slalom, slalom and Alpine combined.[130]
Biathlon Since 1960 10 Sprint (men: 10 km; women: 7.5 km), the individual (men: 20 km; women: 15 km), the pursuit (men: 12.5 km; women: 10 km), the relay (men: 4x7.5 km; women: 4x6 km), and the mass start (men: 15 km; women: 12.5 km).[131]
Bobsled 1924–1956
1964–present		 3 Four-man race, two-man race and two-woman race.[132]
Cross-country skiing Since 1924 12 Men's sprint, team sprint, 30 km pursuit, 15 km, 50 km and 4x10 km relay; women's sprint, team sprint, 15 km pursuit, 10 km, 30 km (women) and 4x5 km relay.[133]
Curling 1924
1998–present		 2 Men's and women's tournaments.[134]
Figure skating Since 1924Note 1 4 Men's and women's singles; pairs; and ice dancing.[135]
Freestyle skiing Since 1992 6 Men's and women's moguls, aerials and skicross.[136]
Ice hockey Since 1924Note 2 2 Men's and women's tournaments.[137]
Luge Since 1964 3 Men's and women's singles, men's doubles.[138]
Nordic combined Since 1924 3 Men's 10 km individual normal hill, 10 km individual large hill and team.[139]
Short track speed skating Since 1992 8 Men's and women's 500 metres, 1000 metres, 1500 metres; women's 3000 metre relay; and men's 5000 metre relay.[140]
Skeleton 1924; 1948
Since 2002		 2 Men's and women's events.[141]
Ski jumping Since 1924 3 Men's individual large hill, individual small hill and team large hill.[142]
Snowboarding Since 1998 6 Men's and women's parallel giant slalom, half-pipe and snowboard cross.[143]
Speed skating Since 1924 12 Men's and women's 500 metres, 1000 metres, 1500 metres, 5000 metres and team pursuit; women's 3000 metres; men's 10000 metres.[144]

^ Note 1. Figure skating events were also held at the 1908 and 1920 Summer Olympics.
^ Note 2. A men's ice hockey tournament was also held at the 1920 Summer Olympics.

Discontinued sports and demonstration events

Demonstration sports have historically provided a venue for host countries to attract publicity to locally popular or newly popular sports by having an competition without granting medals. Demonstration sports have been discontinued since 1992. Military patrol, a precursor to the biathlon, was a medal sport in 1924 and was later demonstrated in 1928, 1936 and 1948, and in 1960 became an official sport as the biathlon.[145] The special figures figure skating event was only contested at the 1908 Summer Olympics.[146] Bandy, a sport popular in the Nordic countries and Russia described as ice hockey with a ball, was demonstrated at the Oslo Games.[147] Ice stock sport, a German variant of curling, was demonstrated in 1936 in Germany and in 1964 in Austria.[16] The ski ballet event, later known as ski-acro, was demonstrated in 1988 and 1992.[148] Skijöring, skiing behind dogs, was a demonstration sport in St. Moritz in 1928.[147] Sled-dog racing contests were displayed at Lake Placid in 1932.[147] Speed skiing was demonstrated in Albertville at the 1992 Winter Olympics.[149] Winter pentathlon, a variant to the modern pentathlon, was included as a demonstration event at the 1948 Games in Switzerland. It was composed of cross-country skiing, shooting, downhill skiing, fencing and horse riding.[131]

List of Games

Games Year Host Dates Nations Competitors Sports Events Ref
Total Men Women
I 1924 France Chamonix, France 25 January – 5 February 16 258 247 11 6 16 [7]
II 1928 Switzerland St. Moritz, Switzerland 11–19 February 25 464 438 26 6 14 [12]
III 1932 United States Lake Placid, United States 4–15 February 17 252 231 21 5 14 [13]
IV 1936 Nazi Germany Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany 6–16 February 28 646 566 80 6 17 [16]
1940 Originally awarded to Sapporo, Japan, cancelled because of World War II.[17]
1944 Originally awarded to Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy, cancelled because of World War II.[19]
V 1948 Switzerland St. Moritz, Switzerland 30 January – 8 February 28 669 592 77 4 22 [21]
VI 1952 Norway Oslo, Norway 14–25 February 30 694 585 109 4 22 [23]
VII 1956 Italy Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy 26 January – 5 February 32 821 687 134 4 24 [30]
VIII 1960 United States Squaw Valley, United States 18–28 February 30 665 521 144 4 27 [150]
IX 1964 Austria Innsbruck, Austria 29 January – 9 February 36 1091 892 199 6 34 [34]
X 1968 France Grenoble, France 6–18 February 37 1158 947 211 6 35 [36]
XI 1972 Japan Sapporo, Japan 3–13 February 35 1006 801 205 6 35 [151]
XII 1976 Austria Innsbruck, Austria 4–15 February 37 1123 892 231 6 37 [43]
XIII 1980 United States Lake Placid, United States 13–24 February 37 1072 840 232 6 38 [152]
XIV 1984 Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Sarajevo, Yugoslavia 8–19 February 49 1272 998 274 6 39 [48]
XV 1988 Canada Calgary, Canada 13–28 February 57 1423 1122 301 6 46 [49]
XVI 1992 France Albertville, France 8–23 February 64 1801 1313 488 7 57 [51]
XVII 1994 Norway Lillehammer, Norway 12–27 February 67 1737 1215 522 6 61 [54]
XVIII 1998 Japan Nagano, Japan 7–22 February 72 2176 1389 787 7 68 [60]
XIX 2002 United States Salt Lake City, United States 8–24 February 77 2399 1513 886 7 78 [63]
XX 2006 Italy Turin, Italy 10–26 February 80 2508 1548 960 7 84 [67]
XXI 2010 Canada Vancouver, Canada 12–28 February 82 2629 – – 7 86 [153]
XXII 2014 Russia Sochi, Russia 7–23 February future event [154]
XXIII 2018 TBD (2011) 9–25 February future event [79]
XXIV 2022 TBD (2015) TBD future event

Note: Unlike the Summer Olympics, the cancelled 1940 Winter Olympics and 1944 Winter Olympics are not included in the official Roman numeral counts for the Winter Games. While the official titles of the Summer Games actually count Olympiads (which occur even if the Games do not), the official titles of the Winter Games only count the Games themselves.

a map of the world with the countries that have hosted Winter Olympic Games shaded various colours, and dots on each country with the year(s) the country hosted the Games. The colour key is: Green, countries that have hosted or will host one Winter Olympics; Blue, countries that have hosted two or more Winter Olympics. There are also dots for the location of each host city: black dots for cities that hosted one Games, orange dots for cities that have hosted two Games
A Map of Winter Olympics locations. The colour key is: Green; countries that have hosted or will host one Winter Olympics. Blue; countries that have hosted two or more Winter Olympics. There are also dots for the location of each host city: black dots for cities that hosted one Games, orange dots for cities that have hosted two Games

See also

  • List of multiple Winter Olympic medalists
  • List of participating nations at the Winter Olympic Games
  • Lists of Olympic medalists
  • Olympic Games ceremony
  • Olympic Games scandals and controversies
  • Paralympic Games

References

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  6. ↑ Findling and Pelle (2004), p. 283
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 "Chamonix 1924". International Olympic Committee. http://www.olympic.org/en/content/Olympic-Games/All-Past-Olympic-Games/Winter/Chamonix-1924/. Retrieved 2010-03-05. 
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  98. ↑ Mottram (2003), p. 313
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  102. ↑ 102.0 102.1 102.2 Macur, Juliet (2006-02-19). "Looking for Doping Evidence, Italian Police Raid Austrians". New York Times (NYTimes.com). http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/19/sports/olympics/19drug.html. Retrieved 2009-03-25. 
  103. ↑ "IOC to hold first hearings on doping during 2006 Winter Olympics". USA Today (Gannett Co.). 2007-02-09. http://www.usatoday.com/sports/olympics/winter/2007-02-09-2006-games-doping_x.htm. Retrieved 2009-03-25. 
  104. ↑ 104.0 104.1 104.2 104.3 104.4 Cooper-Chen (2005), p. 231
  105. ↑ Senn (1999), p. 136
  106. ↑ Senn (1999), p. 136-137
  107. ↑ 107.0 107.1 Moreland, Jennifer. "Olympics and Television". The Museum of Broadcast Television. http://museum.tv/eotvsection.php?entrycode=olympicsand. Retrieved 2010-08-24. 
  108. ↑ Gershon (2000), p. 17
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  110. ↑ Cooper-Chen (2005), p. 230
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  114. ↑ Hazan (1982), p. 36
  115. ↑ Hazan, (1982), p. 42
  116. ↑ Hazan (1982), p. 44
  117. ↑ Senn, (1999), p. 171
  118. ↑ Hill (1992), p. 34
  119. ↑ Hill (1992), p. 35
  120. ↑ Hill (1992), pp. 36–38
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  122. ↑ Hill (1992), pp. 38–39
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  124. ↑ Hill (1992), p. 48
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  126. ↑ Brownell (2005), p. 187
  127. ↑ International Olympic Committee (2007-07-07). "Olympic Charter" (PDF). Press release. http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_122.pdf. Retrieved 2009-05-13. 
  128. ↑ Sappenfield, Mark (2010-02-25). "USA, Canada ride new sports to top of Winter Olympics medal count". The Christian Science Monitor (CSMonitor.com). http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Olympics/2010/0225/USA-Canada-ride-new-sports-to-top-of-Winter-Olympics-medal-count. Retrieved 2010-08-23. 
  129. ↑ "Vancouver 2010 (Sports)". The Vancouver Organizing Committee for the 2010 Winter Olympics. http://www.vancouver2010.com/olympic-schedule-results/. Retrieved 2010-03-12. 
  130. ↑ "Alpine Skiing". International Olympic Committee. http://www.olympic.org/en/content/Sports/All-Sports/Skiing/Alpine-Skiing/. Retrieved 2010-03-12. 
  131. ↑ 131.0 131.1 "Biathlon". International Olympic Committee. http://www.olympic.org/en/content/Sports/All-Sports/Biathlon/. Retrieved 2010-03-12. 
  132. ↑ "Bobsleigh". International Olympic Committee. http://www.olympic.org/en/content/Sports/All-Sports/Bobsleigh/Bobsleigh/. Retrieved 2010-03-12. 
  133. ↑ "Cross Country Skiing". International Olympic Committee. http://www.olympic.org/en/content/Sports/All-Sports/Skiing/Cross-Country-Skiing/. Retrieved 2010-03-12. 
  134. ↑ "Curling". International Olympic Committee. http://www.olympic.org/en/content/Sports/All-Sports/Curling/. Retrieved 2010-03-12. 
  135. ↑ "Figure Skating". International Olympic Committee. http://www.olympic.org/en/content/Sports/All-Sports/Skating/Figure-skating/. Retrieved 2010-03-12. 
  136. ↑ "Freestyle skiing". International Olympic Committee. http://www.olympic.org/en/content/Sports/All-Sports/Skiing/Freestyle-Skiing/. Retrieved 2010-03-12. 
  137. ↑ "Ice Hockey". International Olympic Committee. http://www.olympic.org/en/content/Sports/All-Sports/Ice-Hockey/. Retrieved 2010-03-12. 
  138. ↑ "Luge". International Olympic Committee. http://www.olympic.org/en/content/Sports/All-Sports/Luge/. Retrieved 2010-03-12. 
  139. ↑ "Nordic Combined". International Olympic Committee. http://www.olympic.org/en/content/Sports/All-Sports/Skiing/Nordic-Combined/. Retrieved 2010-03-12. 
  140. ↑ "Short Track Speed Sskating". International Olympic Committee. http://www.olympic.org/en/content/Sports/All-Sports/Skating/Short-Track-Speed-Skating/. Retrieved 2010-03-12. 
  141. ↑ "Skeleton". International Olympic Committee. http://www.olympic.org/en/content/Sports/All-Sports/Bobsleigh/Skeleton/. Retrieved 2010-03-12. 
  142. ↑ "Ski Jumping". International Olympic Committee. http://www.olympic.org/en/content/Sports/All-Sports/Skiing/Ski-Jumping/. Retrieved 2010-03-12. 
  143. ↑ "Snowboard". International Olympic Committee. http://www.olympic.org/en/content/Sports/All-Sports/Skiing/Snowboard/. Retrieved 2010-03-12. 
  144. ↑ "Speed Skating". International Olympic Committee. http://www.olympic.org/en/content/Sports/All-Sports/Skating/Speed-skating/. Retrieved 2010-03-12. 
  145. ↑ "Biathlon history". USBiathlon.org. http://www.usbiathlon.org/history.html. Retrieved 2009-03-26. 
  146. ↑ "Figure Skating at the 1908 London Summer Games". Sports Reference LLC. http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/summer/1908/FSK/. Retrieved 2009-03-26. 
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  148. ↑ "Freestyle Skiing History". The National Post (Canadian Broadcasting Company). 2009-12-04. http://www.cbc.ca/olympics/history/story/2009/11/25/spo-sport-history-freestyleskiing.html. Retrieved 2010-03-16. 
  149. ↑ Janofsky, Michael (1991-12-18). "Hitting the slopes in the fast lane". The New York Times (NYTimes.com). http://www.nytimes.com/1991/12/18/sports/albertville-profile-speed-skiing-hitting-the-slopes-in-the-fast-lane.html?n=Top/Reference/Times%20Topics/Subjects/S/Skiing. Retrieved 2009-03-26. 
  150. ↑ "Squaw Valley 1960". International Olympic Committee. http://www.olympic.org/en/content/Olympic-Games/All-Past-Olympic-Games/Winter/Squaw-Valley-1960/. Retrieved 2010-03-12. 
  151. ↑ "Sapporo 1972". International Olympic Committee. http://www.olympic.org/en/content/Olympic-Games/All-Past-Olympic-Games/Winter/Sapporo-1972/. Retrieved 2010-03-12. 
  152. ↑ "Lake Placid 1980". International Olympic Committee. http://www.olympic.org/en/content/Olympic-Games/All-Past-Olympic-Games/Winter/Lake-Placid-1980/. Retrieved 2010-03-12. 
  153. ↑ "Vancouver Olympics – Athletes". The Vancouver Organizing Committee for the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games. http://www.vancouver2010.com/olympic-athletes/. Retrieved 2010-02-24. 
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